Binge Eating Disorder: Social and Psychological Issues

Binge Eating Disorder

What is It?

Binge Eating Disorder, is a blanket term used to describe the act of consuming unusually copious amounts of food, and is often simultaneously associated with some psychological trigger.  Binge Eating Disorder is not currently included in the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) however, it is scheduled to be added to the new DSM V, and was included in DSM IV as an area for further study (dsm5.org).  According to www.dsm5.org, binge eating is comprised of the following:

“A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is characterized by both of the following:

1. eating, in a discrete period of time (for example, within any 2-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat in a similar period of time under similar circumstances

2. a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (for example, a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating)

B. The binge-eating episodes are associated with three (or more) of the following:

1. eating much more rapidly than normal

2. eating until feeling uncomfortably full

3. eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry

4. eating alone because of feeling embarrassed by how much one is eating

5. feeling disgusted with oneself, depressed, or very guilty afterwards

C. Marked distress regarding binge eating is present.

D. The binge eating occurs, on average, at least once a week for three months.

E. The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior (for example, purging) and does not occur exclusively during the course Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, or Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder.” (dsm5.org)

The act of binge eating is generally associated with obesity and weight management issues, though; binge eating also encompasses negative social ideas regarding an individual’s ability to control their own actions.  This lack of control, seen negatively in other deviant acts such as substance abuse and gambling, is coupled with the deviance of being obese or overweight and can cause many social and psychological issues in individuals that are struggling with Binge Eating Disorder (BED).  According to a diagnosis overview from New York University, “It is thought that 4% of US population has binge eating disorder. Women are slightly at more risk than men. The illness peaks at 40-50 years old” (psych.med.NYU.edu). 

An Example of Binging

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9e-wRrLGX4

A (Very) Brief History

                According to much of the literature, the act of binge eating is nothing new, the formal disorder however, is a relatively recent invention.  According to an article entitle “A Fear of Food: A History of Eating Disorders” posted on randomhistory.com, “it was not until the early 1990s that binge eating was recognized as distinct from bulimia nervosa. The reason for this probably has to do with the reluctance to associate obesity, per se, with an eating disorder (Gordon 2000)” (randomhistory.com).  Additionally, NYU states that Binge-Eating Disorder is associated with Bulimia Nervosa, furthering the connection between the two disorders.  BED is interesting because while most of the negative harm to the body is physical and related to obesity and weight gain, much of the treatment options revolve around the psychiatric treatment of the patients, illustrating the complexity of the diagnosis.

Relation to Other Disorders

                As with adult ADHD, Binge Eating Disorder was once a part of a narrower field of eating disorders which has been expanded on to include more diagnoses.  In “The Emergence of Hyperactive Adults as Abnormal”, Conrad and Potter state, “Adult ADHD offers a clear example of how a medicalized category can expand to include a wider range of troubles within its definition” (Conrad and Potter, 143).  Similarly, Binge Eating Disorder was born out of Bulimia Nervosa, and its rise coincides with a broader look by society into issues of obesity and health. 

                One can also view binge eating as a form of self-injury, and as with self-injurers, Binge Eating Disorder is often associated with other psychological stresses or triggers such as depression (psych.med.nyu.edu).  In “Self-Injurers: A ‘Lonely Crowd’”, Adler and Adler state, “According to Best and Luckenbill (1982), loners who are deviants are socialized by conventional society, not by fellow deviants, and yet they choose deviance.  They Choose deviance not because they want to contradict their socialization, but because they face situations where conventional courses of action are unattractive or unsatisfactory” (Adler and Adler, 131).  For Example, look at this woman’s feeling toward her own binge eating:

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWFf8eQFxWU

                Over-indulgence in food, can also be related to over-indulgence in other substances such as alcohol or drugs.  Specific to this course, Peralta published an article entitled “Hey, Don’t Blame Me…Blame the Booze” focusing on gender-appropriate roles of alcohol abuse, showing that binge-drinking contributes to the violation of gender-appropriate behavior.   However, there is also a gendered component to binge eating as NYU asserts that women are more at risk than men for engaging in binge eating (psych.med.nyu.edu). This is significant because it shows that binge-eating also violates gender norms, the norms of being the ideal woman. In American society and culture, women are more likely to be judged negatively or positively based on physical body characteristics, which can suffer under Binge Eating Disorder. 

Underlying Social Constructions: A HEAVY gender bias

 
One need only Google image search "Binge Eating" to find a heavy gender bias. 8 of the first 10 images depict either a sad woman surrounded by food, or a woman ecstatic to be surrounded by food, illustrating the association between binge eating and unstable emotions. Additionally, much of the literature connects Binge Eating Disorder with a variety of other psychologically deviant issues such as depression, and an inability to handle life's stresses. The following images are some of the first image returns when you Google "Binge Eating", they are numbers 1, 6, and 7 of the first 10.

The first Google image search return of "Binge Eating"

the depressed female binge-eater

she loves burgers

A study published in Appetite, a journal dedicated to nutrition, entitled "Stress-induced laboratory eating behavior in obese women with binge eating disorder" states, "The stress-induced eating behavior of BED patients is characterized by a stronger motivation to eat (indicated by a fast initial eating rate) as well as by a lack of satiety perception" (Schulz, Laessle).  Women are the focus of this study, concentrating on the obese participant's lack of ability to cope with stress.  Amazingly, when using Academic Search Complete 3 of the first 5 search results of "Binge Eating" return articles or studies dealing specifically with female binge-eaters, and tie the act of binge eating to other psychological issues.

Of course, there is the more obvious deviant illustration, the association between Binge Eating Disorder and obesity.  This is an interesting connection because the history of Binge Eating Disorder seems to indicate it was born out of the Bulimia Nervosa diagnosis, traditionally associated with the severely underweight.  Nevertheless, the association between Binge Eating and obesity persists, arguably due to the multi-billion dollar industry of nutritional supplements aimed at weight loss, and prescription medication aimed at health improvement. 

Who REALLY Benefits from this Diagnosis?

myhealthiestlife.com

From a health and physical fitness point of view, the obvious winner in the battle against obesity is the dietary supplement industry.  According to consumerreports.org, the industry grossed 26.7 billion dollars in supplement sales in 2009. 

An important factor in legitimizing a diagnosis or a medical condition is the role the medical community plays in furthering the reality of diagnosis, the fear of bad health, and fostering a need for patients to purchase prescription medication.  According to a press release by sfgate.com, a report by Global Industry Analysts predicts "Anti-Obesity" drug profits to reach 10.3 billion dollars by the year 2017 (sfgate.com). 

Still, there are more beneficiaries of this diagnosis, as psychiatric treatment is often labeled under treatment options for this disorder.  According to NYU, treatments include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Interpersonal Psychotherapy, and Medications. 

Social Reasons for the Existence of this Diagnosis?

The social reasons for the diagnosis of Binge Eating Disorder are varied, but mainly revolve around society's ideas of what is healthy, responsible, and emotionally stable.  The research I have seen shows a heavy gender bias toward females, despite NYU stating that women are only "slightly" more likely than men to deal with binge eating episodes (psych.med.nyu.edu).  As with most things in life, there is a flip side to the negativity of binge-eating. 

Though the DSM defines Binge-Eating Disorder as being characterized by a number of certain conditions, the overarching pillar of the disorder is consuming copious amounts of food, often in a less than healthy fashion associated with psychological loss of control, or an emotional trigger.  However, others argue that doing essentially the same thing, minus the stereotypical obese-woman dealing with stress, is actually a healthier way of eating. 

amazon.com

Let me explain, "The Warrior Diet" coined by Ori Hofmekler, is a system of eating aimed at weight management in which a person "underfeeds" for a period of up to twenty (yes 20) hours, only to "overfeed" for a period of 4 hours.  This "overfeed" takes place in the form of one giant meal.  As Hofmekler reasons, "The 'Undereating Phase' during the day maximizes the Sympathetic Nervous System's (SNS) fight or flight reaction to stress, thereby promoting alertness, generation of energy, fat burning and the capacity to endure stress" (warriordiet.com).  After literally starving yourself for 20 hours, the dieter then over-eats (binges) because, "The 'Overeating Phase' at night maximizes the Parasympathetic Nervous System's (PNS) recuperation effect on the body, thereby promoting calming down, relaxation, digestion and the utilization of nutrients for repair and growth. This feeding cycle stimulates the production of cellular factors such as Cyclic AMP or GMP, which stimulate hormone synthesis and fat burning during the day, as well as protein synthesis and growth during the night, respectively" (warriordiet.com)

And there you have it, once again the social legitimacy of an act considered deviant, is once again nothing more than a social construction pitting the perceptions of the powerful (wealthy) against the perceptions of the weak (poor).  Does it make any sense, that when this woman binges, it is unhealthy, deviant, and life threatening;

BAD!

 (weightlosssurgerychannel.com)

But when this guy does it, and writes a book about it, and more importantly looks like he's healthy, then systematic binge-eating is healthy, mindful, and sexy.

GOOD! (as in Good God this is stupid)

 

warriordiet.com

The short answer is no.  Though as with most diagnoses, there are circumstances I am sure when this diagnosis is warranted, and that its recipients benefit from the treatment they receive. However, I find it interesting that the social constructions surrounding the disorder are so gender-biased, that this diagnosis happened to arise around the time the United States began critically looking into obesity, and that alternative systems of binge-eating are promoted as healthy options.  These factors add further complexity to the diagnosis, and to the socialization of medicine and health more broadly. 

- Steve

Word Count: 1,500 (1,802)

Works Cited

"A Fear of Food: A History of Eating Disorders". randomhistory.com. 2011.

Adler and Adler. "Self-Injurers: A 'Lonely Crow'". Readings in Deviant Behavior. pp. 129-132.

      Pearson Education Inc. 2010.

Conrad and Potter. "The Emergence of Hyperactive Adults as Abnormal". Readings in Deviant

      Behavior. pp. 138-144. Pearson Education Inc. 2010.

"Global Anti-Obesity Drugs Market to Reach US$10.3 Billion by 2017, According to New Report by

      Global Industry Analysts, Inc." sfgate.com/press releases. November 17, 2011.

"K 05 Binge Eating Disorder: Proposed Revision". DSM5.org. 2012.

McCoy, Krisha. "Binge Eating Disorder". NYU Langone Medical Center. psych.med.nyu.edu.

        2012.

Peralta, Robert. "Hey Don't Blame Me...Blame the Booze". Readings in Deviant Behavior. pp. 217-

        222. Pearson Education Inc. 2010.

Schulz, S. S., & Laessle, R. G. (2012). Stress-induced laboratory eating behavior in obese

women with binge eating disorder. Appetite, 58(2), 457-461.

doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.12.007

"What's behind our dietary supplements coverage".  consumerreports.org.  January 2011.

Film Review: Generation Rx

Generation Rx is a documentary film directed by Kevin Miller chronicling the adverse effects associated with the increase in psychoactive drug prescriptions for children and young adults (www.imbd.com).  The film uses expert commentary, as well as anecdotal evidence to support its main argument that the psychology of these young people (Generation Rx) has been warped by the over-prescription for loosely defined mental disorders all done in the name of profit.  Overreliance on medication serves to insulate children from dealing with life problems in a natural way, when combined with documented suicidal and homicidal side effects in popular children’s medications; the situation can breed violence among children, teens, and young adults furthering their label as “deviant”. 

kevinpmiller.blogspot.com

                Generation Rx proposes that by diagnosing children and young adults as chemically imbalanced and thus prescribing medication, parents and physicians are unknowingly (or knowingly) causing chemical imbalances as the drugs affect children’s brains (Generation Rx).  The film argues the reason this goes relatively unnoticed or unaddressed is because of the massive profits these false diagnoses create.   According to the film, the pharmaceutical industry operates just like any other capitalist enterprise, with a few exceptions:

A. the profits from drugs incentivize doctors to label children mentally ill

B. advertising and marketing techniques prey on children and parents, and

C. more diagnoses (and mainstream medical acceptance) equals greater profits and more powerful lobbies arguing for the inclusion of illnesses such as ADHD in the DSM, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Generation Rx). 

youtube.com

                This film relates to our course in a number of ways, chiefly how the label of being mentally ill is exploding among children at the hands of parents and physicians, and also because the perverse capitalism practices perpetrated by pharmaceutical giants is leading to increased suicidal and homicidal behavior among recipients of the drugs.  The expansion of diagnoses is not uncommon, and according to Conrad and Potter in “The Emergence of Hyperactive Adults as Abnormal”, “…in terms of diagnostic expansion, the ADHD case is not unique.  We can point to other cases where medicalized categories, which were originally developed and legitimated for one set of problems, were extended or refrained to include a broader range of problems” (Conrad and Potter, 143).   This article relates particularly to adults, but children too have seen the range of diagnoses increase in recent years, a child considered a disruptive but otherwise normal student 50 years ago, may very well be deemed mentally ill and therefore deviant today.  Harmon states in her article “Are someADHD-labeled kids just young for their grade?” that “two separate studies, both set to publish in a future issue of the Journal of Health Economics, found that students whose birthdays fell just before their school’s age enrollment cutoff date – and thus were amongst the youngest in their class – had a substantially higher rate of ADHD diagnoses than students who were born just a day or two later and were the oldest in the grade below” (Harmon, 1).  Harmon also states that these children in particular are commonly seen as “easily distracted, fidgety, and interruptive” (Harmon, 1). 

vanderbilt.edu

Most of the arguments in the film are convincing because expert analysis from across the field is presented to show the illegitimacy of many of the milestone studies use to justify the prescription of ADHD medication in children.  One commentator states in regards to a critical analysis of over 2000 studies regarding benefits in academic performance to children following ADHD medication treatment that “not one study indicated a positive academic affect” (Generation Rx).  The film is littered with anecdotal examples of personal harm done seemingly because of prescription psycho pharmaceutical medications.  Generation Rx also presents damning information indicating financial interests in pharmaceutical companies held by high ranking physicians in the FDA and on the governing board for the DSM. 

Suicide Attempts by Substance: According to Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Adminstration (URL linked).

samhsa.gov

Generation Rx illustrates perfectly how our perception of what is medically infallible, or scientifically valid is shaped by our society; and in U.S. society dollars are more powerful than science.  This is the true tragedy by the ADHD diagnoses binge, the human cost to families and individuals being systematically ignored in favor of increased financial benefit.  As one commentator states, the ADHD diagnoses binge has been “a great fraud” (Generation Rx).  Certainly some children are hyperactive and may benefit from treatment of some kind, not necessarily from prescription anti-psychotics.  However, the film argues convincingly that even in the medical community, where the Hippocratic Oath states “first do no harm”, there are treasures greater than human life. 

-          Steve

Works Cited

Conrad, Peter and Potter, Deborah.  Readings in Deviant Behavior.  “The Emergence of                 Hyperactive  Adults As Abnormal” (p. 138-144).  Pearson Education Inc. 2010.

Generation Rx.  Documentary Film.  Kevin Miller, 2008.

Harmon, Katherine. “Are some ADHD-labeled kids just young for their grade?”.  Scientific

                   American    Blogs. 2010.

                   http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/08/17/

                    are some adhd-labeled kids-just-young-for-their-grade/

Images:

Kevinpmiller.blogspot.com
vanderbilt.edu
samhsa.gov

Film Review: Tough Guise

Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity is a documentary film directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jason Katz chronicling the gradual intensification of depictions of masculinity in popular culture.  The film uses file footage from WWE wrestling matches, action films such as Rambo and Terminator and other media sources to illustrate what masculinity means in the late 20^th century.  This image is then compared to depictions of masculinity from the early and mid 20^th centuries to convey the films thesis.  Tough Guise argues that increased violence in the depictions of masculinity leads to increases in male violence, and to an identity crisis in those males who do not meet society’s definition of “masculine”. 

mediaed.org

            The film uses contemporary depictions of masculinity to argue in favor of its thesis, showing the gradual progression in size, violence, and chauvinism present in male ideals of masculinity.  The film argues these media depictions encourage young men  to adopt this style of masculinity, and to strive to behave similarly to the characters on film and in radio.  This process leads to increased violence because young men idolize society’s depictions of masculinity and seek to deal with common life issues in the way the media determines they should.  Common representations of masculinity in the examples provided in the film are violence, chauvinism, and bigotry.  Additionally, racist rhetoric is often present in the media surrounding masculinity, and in the mainstream news coverage of the aftermath of a violent act.  As Fish explains in "We've Seen This Movie Before", the societal reaction to violence perpetrated by individuals depends on their race (Fish, 2).  Fish states:

 

"The formula is simple and foolproof (although those who deploy it so facilely seem to think we are all fools): If the bad act is committed by a member of a group you wish to demonize, attribute it to a community or a religion and not to the individual. But if the bad act is committed by someone whose profile, interests and agendas are uncomfortably close to your own, detach the malefactor from everything that is going on or is in the air (he came from nowhere) and characterize him as a one-off, non-generalizable, sui generis phenomenon" (Fish, 2).
This can be extrapolated to nearly all instances of belittling those who fall outside the masculine ideal.  Perhaps those who are insecure in their sexuality call others "fags", or perhaps men who had a hard time dating before they were rich feel the need to degrade all women:

"All women are whores." - Howard Stern

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFo0ojvl62U

            The thesis of Tough Guise is applicable to this course in many ways.  Primarily, as society constructs a definition of masculinity, those who do not meet this definition are often labeled deviant using terms questioning their gender, sex, and sexual orientation.  These deviant individuals can be identified using terms such as “fag”, “queer”, or “pussy”.  Additionally, the inherent chauvinism present in societal constructions of masculinity may lead to increased violence against women according to film, including rape and physical assault.  The pressure faced by those labeled deviant forces these individuals into a masculine identity crisis, which can result in violence such as the Columbine Massacre.  Kimmel and Mahler state, "For some boys, high school is a constant homophobic gauntlet and they may respond by becoming withdrawn and sullen, using drugs or alcohol, becoming depressed or suicidal, or acting out in a blaze of overcompensating violent 'glory'" (What Triggers School Shootings, 79). 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zomme79LsXw

            I found the comparisons between action figures of the mid twentieth century, to action figures of the late twentieth century an especially effective supporting argument to the film’s thesis.  Tough Guise shows that over time, the action figures have become more muscular, have a taller stature, and have more deadly equipment than in each generational predecessor.  In addition, Tough Guise compares the size of protagonist weaponry in film, and shows that in film too, weapon size increases over time.  This process eventually leads to what Jason Katz calls, “the culmination with Arnold Schwarzenegger’s terminator character” (Tough Guise).

generalsjoes.com

            Despite the strong evidence in support of the film’s thesis, I did find the use of some examples to be repetitive, and I found the development of the impact of violent masculine ideals on women to be underdeveloped.  This leads me to what I would propose to study in greater depth.  I would propose to research the prevalence of assaults on women in conjunction with the increased violence in media portrayals of masculinity.  I feel as though there would be a strong positive correlation between these two phenomenons, and that further publicity of this particular issue could possibly lead to greater political and humanitarian action.

abetterwaydomesticviolence.org

            In conclusion, I feel the evidence in favor of Tough Guise argument is convincing and the evidence is damning to mainstream ideas of masculinity.  The film highlights the some of the worst examples of men from Howard Stern to the one-dimensional portrayals of Rambo.  Though, this problem continues, twelve years after Tough Guise was made.  Today, the NRA is still an overly powerful lobby, and Rush Limbaugh feels as though he can call women’s rights activists “sluts” and “prostitutes”.  The male character has transformed little in mainstream media, though loveable loser types such as Seth Rogen and Jonah Hill are becoming more popular, they still conform to many chauvinist ideals, in addition to being anti-intellectual and pro-substance abuse.  I feel an update of Tough Guise is needed, in addition to further publicity of the negative repercussions of the unrealistic, contemporary depiction of masculinity. 

politicalhumor.about.com

 - Steve

Works Cited

Fish, Stanley.  "We've Seen This Movie Before".  New York Times.  August 30 2010. 

Katz, Jason. Tough Guise. 2000

Kimmel, M. and Mahler, M. "What Triggers School Shootings" (2003).  Readings in Deviant Behavior Sixth Edition.  Pages 76-82.  Pearson Education Inc. 

Deviant Language

There is perhaps no word more divisive in American culture than the word “nigger”.  The word itself conjures dark images of oppression, death, suffering, and war.  Though, conversely the word to me brings to mind Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech, marches on the capitol, and the enlightenment of a generation.  The innate mixed emotions that accompany a terrible word predict the contemporary social reaction to such a word.  Some Whites still use the word to oppress, while others pretend it never existed.  Conversely, some in the Black community acknowledge its damaging effect and deplore its use, while others attempt to own this word, to retake its meaning and honor their ancestors.  Through my research into the topic I have found there is no clear answer on the origins or the destination of the word “nigger”.  Rather, the only commonality is the intensity of the emotion surrounding this word.

                                           Courtesy of "Stuff Queer People Need to Know"

                According to an article published by Ferris State University in Michigan entitled “Nigger and Caricatures”, “The etymology of nigger is often traced to the Latin niger, meaning black.  The Latin niger became the noun negro (black person) in English, and simply the color black in Spanish and Portuguese” (Pilgrim and Middleton, 1).   In American racist vernacular, the two terms “nigger” and “negro” were often interchanged, with “negro” being the more socially acceptable of the two.  Ferris State University goes on to state, “Whatever its origins, by the early 1800s it was firmly established as a denigrative epithet.  Almost two centuries later, it remains a chief symbol of white racism” (Pilgrim and Middleton, 1).  Adding to the complexity of the word is the contemporary reaction of the African American community, divided amongst those wishing to “take back” the term, with others wishing to extinguish its ugliness. 

Many African American bloggers tackle race in their writings, and aptly so, as the construction of race is all around us.  Of the blogs I have read the following stand out to me as contemporary voices on race and American culture:

The Field Negro

Chocolate City

Huff Post: Black Voices

                Perhaps the most apt theory to describe the damage caused by the label “nigger” is Labeling Theory by Howard Becker.  Becker states in Readings in Deviant Behavior, “that social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance” (Becker, 39).  In the case of the racial slur “nigger”, the deviance was being a black person, and the consequences were often violent and barbaric.  There were times in American history where being African American was literally criminal, all as a result of the stigma associated with the label "nigger".  In this sense Shaming Theory by Braithwaite can also be used to illustrate the consequences of being labeled “nigger”.  Braithwaite states, “a high level of stigmatization in the society is on of the very factors that encourages criminal subculture formation by creating a population of outcasts with no stake in conformity, no chance of self-esteem within the terms of conventional society…” (Braithwaite, 35).  This stigmatization and loss of hope eventually played into the negative stereotypes as racist whites used the reactions to oppression to further stigmatize African Americans. However from this lack of hope rose the civil rights movement of the 1960’s which changed race relations in America forever, and would eventually lead to changes in the perceptions of “nigger”.

                The reaction of the African American community to the use of the word “nigger” is wide and varied, and even social commentators cannot agree on an answer to a question that often perplexes whites making claims of reverse racism.  Look at these videos on the varying perspectives of comedians Richard Pryor and Kat Williams:

youtube.com

youtube.com

     Obviously, the opinions are wide and varied, but the power of the word is ever present, and perhaps one of the only set in stone rules is that Whites should never use the word “nigger” casually.  Some in the White community often equate this to reverse racism, saying that “cracker” is a perfectly socially acceptable comedic term.  The truth is until Whites endure hundreds of years of slavery, followed by a weak “reconstruction”, followed with decades under Jim Crow, finally gaining legal freedom while still suffering the burden of negative stereotypes in the form of under-employment, over incarceration, and abject poverty all under the guise of progress, “cracker” will never compare in any way to the innate damage present in the word “nigger”.  This is what happens when a white comedian attempts to use the word “nigger” casually; the ugly racist undertones come out in full form:

 youtube.com

       In conclusion, the term “nigger” is offensive, not only to black people, but to white people as well, though the truth is, members of the White community will never fully understand the damage associated with this word.  Many people in both racial communities have an immediate negative reaction to the word “nigger”, a reaction that goes beyond vulgarity into the very fiber of one’s morality.  The African American community is infinitely more likely to use the term openly, though they are also more likely to be affected by horrific social constructions present in the term.  If the word “nigger” is to be used, the context must be understood.  While it is empowering to Kat Williams, it was offensive to Richard Pryor, this division shows the true nature of the word.   I for one am comfortable with members of the African American community using the word in a manner that they are comfortable with, though I speak from a position of White privilege.  I personally would never use the term, though for some reason, both the ideas of Pryor and Williams resonate equally with me.  This division in my own heart is evidence of me never truly having to face the word.  I feel in the end, no word in American history has been as devisive as the word "nigger", and still, its use is still hotly debated, further adding to its complexity. 

- Steve

word count: 923

Works Cited:

Calhoun, Thomas, et. al.  Readings In Deviant Behavior.  Labeling Theory (Becker). pg. 39

Calhoun, Thomas, et. al. Readings In Deviant Behavior. Shaming Theory (Braithwaite). pg 33

Pilgrim and Middleton.  "Niggers and Caricature".  Ferris State University. 2001.

youtube.com

stuffqueerpeopleneedtoknow.wordpress

Film Review: Murderball

          Murderball is a documentary film starring Mark Zupan, chronicling the lives of quad rugby players vying for the gold medal in the 2004 Paralympic Games.  Additionally, Murderball documents the lives of individuals recently injured and facing the prospect of life as a quadriplegic.  The film addresses common misconceptions about life as a quadriplegic, and highlights the physicality, sexuality, and ability of a group commonly perceived as asexual and useless.  The film shatters misconceptions about the “disabled” community, and effectively destroys what Smith and blogger annaham of Bitch Media call “disability archetypes” (Bitch Media).  The film argues that disabled persons are not limited to and do not operate within socially constructed ideals of disability.  Rather, as illustrated by members of the United States Quad Rugby team, disabled individuals exist with all the complexity and much of the ability of “able-bodied” individuals, in spite of the wide-spread stereotype of being helpless. 

                                                                                 youtube.com

            According to Bitch Media, society tends to view disabled individuals within two or more archetypes.  Of particular note or what Smith refers to as , "The Good Cripple"and what blogger annaham refers to as "Supercrip" .  Smith touches on the dissemination of one-dimensional disabled characters saying there is an abundance of “characters who are wholly characterized by their disability.  As oppose to say characters who happen to be disabled, characters who can be disabled without letting it consume them” (The Transcontinental Disability Choir: Disability Archetypes: The Good Cripple).  Smith goes on to state, “The Good Cripple is the safe, comfortable depiction of disability” (The Transcontinental Disability Choir: Disability Archetypes: The Good Cripple).  Along similar lines falls the positive stereotype of the “Supercrip” (annaham, TDC: Disability Archetypes: Supercrip).  The Supercrip as described by Bitch Media is the representation of disabled persons as a whole as inspirational, while still being seen as the other.  Bitch Media quotes an excerpt from Lorenzo Milam’s CripZen: A Manual For Survival, as Milam states, “Less obvious, but more hurtful, is what we call the Roosevelt Syndrome-scaling great heights, smiling…becoming SuperCrip, convincing everyone that there is nothing going on…” (TDC: Disability Archetypes: Supercrip).  This statement highlights the inherent problems of positive stereotypes, that by ignoring a person’s disability, or treating disabled persons as if they are innately inspirational, you detract from the individual agency of the person. 

                                                                    wheelchairbodybuilding.com
          Murderball effectively destroys the notions of “Supercrip” and of “The Good Cripple” by presenting an unblinking look into the reality of quadriplegic individual’s lives.  The film argues that society has an unrealistic construction of the label "disabled", by showing that the individuals presented have athletic prowess, sexual desire and ability, and are able to accomplish many if not all of the tasks that able-bodied individuals can accomplish.  All of these aspects of the characters lives are displayed on screen creating an effective argument against current societal perceptions of able-bodied.  The archetypes are rejected in evidence by the athletes in Murderball, though they are not the only athletes labeled deviant who reject the notions of “Supercrip” and “The Good Cripple”. 

                                                                       rohanmurphy.com

            Rohan Murphy is a champion college wrestler, and according to his coach Teri Jordan, rejects the label of disabled.  In an article for Sports Illustrated, Mandell quotes Jordan as saying, “Rohan may not have legs, but he is in no way disabled” (Mandell, Standing Tall: No legs, no problem for Penn State’s Rohan Murphy).  Murphy was apprehensive about competing in Paralympic Games, as his coach Teri Jordan states, “He didn’t want to compete in something where everyone gets a medal” (Mandell, 2).  This effectively illustrates the stigma that surrounds athletic competitions involving those that are considered disabled.  Despite Murphy being a wrestler at Penn State University, a division I program, he is expected to participate in consolation competition, a direct result of the societal construction of weak and strong, able bodied and disabled. 

            Murderball relates to our course in a number of ways, primarily how the label “disabled” adversely affects otherwise able-bodied individuals.  This is common in other groups seen as weak, such as the elderly.  Society constructs views of these populations depicting them as a homogenous group of gentle, yet useless creatures.  The power of the disabled label, illustrated by Becker’s labeling theory, automatically creates the image of weakness.  It is this societal perception that causes adversity in the lives of those receiving the label, by subjecting them to an often hopeless existence where nothing is expected, and their true identity is clouded by their new master status.

            Murderball’s strongest argument in support of its thesis is the intimate portrayal of the lives of the athletes.  The film shows the physicality, abrasiveness, sexuality, and passion of the quadriplegic athletes, and flatly rejects popular notions of the passive soul, yearning to walk again.  These athletes are as gritty and raw as their metallic chairs, and execute their movements with the precision and accuracy of any Olympic-caliber athlete. Contrary to popular character depictions in Glee and Malcolm in the Middle, the characters and athletes in Murderball represent not simply what it is to be disabled but what it is to be human, that is their disability is in no way their master status.  

                Athletes such as Mark Zupan, and the quad rugby players, as well as Rohan Murphy cause me to question the binary systems of the United States in particular.  Similar to our classification of male and female, and the exclusion of those known as transgender and intersex, the classification of able-bodied or disabled excludes some from participation in sporting events with others outside of their class.  This hierarchy fosters inequality and perpetuates notions of the weaker class, especially in sporting events.  For further research I would propose to open all sporting events in a given sample city, a large metropolitan area for example, to all persons regardless of disability classification in order to see how the revocation of labels affects athlete performance.  The same argument can be made to allow women, intersex, and transgender persons men’s sporting events in order to see how the elimination of sex and gender bias can elevate the perceptions of female, transgender and intersex athletes.  I feel by destroying the socially constructed barriers of able-bodied and disabled and integrating sport; athletes such as Rohan Murphy and Mark Zupan will become more common place, possibly diminishing the stigma of being labeled disabled.  This diminished stigma will have far reaching implications in the social and psychological lives of all “disabled” individuals by illustrating the true ability of all people.  

- Steve

Works Cited:

Smith.  "The Transcontinental Disability Choir: Disability Archetypes: The Good Cripple."
         Bitch Media.  bitchmagazine.org

annaham.  "The Transcontinental Disability Choir: Disability Archetypes: Supercrip."
          Bitch Media.  bitchmagazine.org